"檢查制度"的搜尋報告

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书籍

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自我检查制度

焚书

内容检查软件

商业检查制度

法西斯专制下的检查制度

各区域

历史修正主义

邮政检查制度

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延时播出

宣传与掩盖真相

Template:其他用法3
檢查制度Censorship一詞自Censor而來，Censor為拉丁語，指古羅馬政府官員，其職責為登記公民戶口、評估其財產數額、考核公眾道德與管理公款，其後漸成為檢查之意。檢查制度现在一般指掌控团体或机构控制信息向公众的传播，或者将这些信息消除。
通常指政府機構、宗教團體、民間社團，以及社會風俗等主觀判別資訊之內涵做某程度的檢查，以限定民眾對資訊取得、閱讀與聽聞各方面是否應加以限制與防止之制度，是一種鎮壓思想與資訊的行為。
典型的情况是，检查适度是由政府，宗教团体，或者大众传媒施行的，虽然，也存在着其他的检查制度施行方式。不过，如果控制在适当的范围内，对于相关国家机密，商业秘密，知识产权，以及享有特权的“律师-代理人”之间的交流方面信息的控制，不再检查制度定义范围内。 因此，“检查制度”常常暗示着有不利的，不适当的和压制性的秘密（被隐藏起来）。
检查制度与言论自由和表达自由的概念紧密相关。如果检查制度被滥用，它也常常被与践踏人权，独裁统治和压制并置起来。
“检查制度”带有贬义，它常常暗指，某一类人通过滥用他们对信息的控制权，获取个人利益，或者阻止他人接触到本来他们可以接触到的信息。（通常这些信息可以用来验证人们的结论是否正确。often so that conclusions drawn can be verified）。

检查制度的种类
检查制度的基本原理根据受到检查的数据类型的不同而不同。基本上有五种主要的检查方式：

道德检查制度Moral censorship 就是要通过检查来消除被认为有道德问题的内容。检查机构反对某些材料背后的价值观并且限制人们接触这些材料。例如，色情产品就经常受到道德检查制度的限制。另外一个例子是，1932年，由于根据 "“在文化，历史，或者美学上显著地”"宣扬暴力, 1930拍摄的电影"刀疤" 也成了这种道德检查制度的禁止对象。
军事检查制度 就是要防止敌人获取（我方）军事情报和军事策略，并保持其隐密性的过程。军事检查制度是用来反间谍的。此外，军事检查可能还包括控制信息和大众传媒对特定主题向公众报道。比如美国政府就禁止大众传媒把有关在对伊拉克作战中阵亡的美军的尸体和棺材的照片向观众公开。这么做是为了防止公众做出像在越南战争或者伊朗人质危机中的反应。 这种军事检查甚至会被民主国家接受作为保护国家安全的必要手段。
政治检查制度 如果政府控制秘密信息流向公民，就属于政治检查。政治检查背后的逻辑是，为了防止可能引起革命的自由表达。民主政府不会正式地批准进行政治检查，不过可能会暗中为其背书。任何反对政府的异议行为都被认为是本国政府的弱点，而且容易被敌方利用。选举策略一般来说也是对外保密的：参见水门事件.
宗教检查制度就是要消除任何影响某一信仰的东西。宗教审查常常是一个占据优势的主流宗教为弱势宗教团体制定限制。除此之外，某一宗教还可能删除被认为是对他们的信仰不合适的内容。
商业检查制度 指的是企业中的媒体公关人员防止不利于本企业和本企业的合作伙伴的信息见诸媒体的行为。专事新闻报道业的私有企业有时候还会因为信息可能带来的损失，比如客户流失，广告商流失，股票价值下降等等，而拒绝透露信息。请参考媒体偏见Media Bias 。

按主题和议程
在战争时期，政府常常会实行公开的审查制度，以防止因为信息流通带给有利敌方的资料。常见的审查方式是不能够透露时间与地点等信息，或者等到这些信息（比如跟一次作战行动有关的信息）不再可能被地方利用的时候才能被传播出去。在战时的信息审查的道德问题上，人们常常有不同的评判标准。因为，透露传略性信息给敌方可能会给本国军队带来危险，甚至导致全盘战败。 在第一次世界大战期间，英国军人的信件会受到审查。当时军官会拿着黑墨水笔浏览士兵的信件，把可能透露军情的部分涂掉，然后信才能被邮递出去。第二次世界大战其间的著名标语“嘴唇把不严，击沉巡洋舰（Loose lips sink ships）”就是被用来证明检查制度的正当性，并且要求士兵们能够对敏感信息的保密措施保持自律。
A well-known example of sanitization policies comes from the USSR under Josef Stalin, where publicly used photographs were often altered to remove people whom Stalin had condemned to execution. Though past photographs may have been remembered or kept, this deliberate and systematic alteration to all of history in the public mntral themes of Stalinism and totalitarianism. More recently, the official exclusion of television crews from locales where coffins of military dead were in transit has been cited as a form of censorship. This particular example obviously represents an incomplete or failed form of censorship, as numerous photographs of these coffins are often printed in newspapers, magazines, and on the web.

对国家机密的检查制度与防止外界关注
The content of school textbooks is often the issue of debate, since their target audience is young people, and the term "whitewashing" is the one commonly used to refer to selective removal of critical or damaging evidence or comment. The reporting of military atrocities in history is extremely controversial, as in the case of the Nanking Massacre, the Holocaust (or Holocaust denial), and the Winter Soldier Investigation of the Vietnam War. The representation of every society's flaws or misconduct is typically downplayed in favor of a more nationalist, favorable or patriotic view.
Also, some religious groups have at times attempted to block the teaching of evolution in schools, as evolutionary theory appears to contradict their religious beliefs. The teaching of sexual education in school and the inclusion of information about sexual health and contraceptive practices in school textbooks is another area where suppression of information occurs.
In the context of secondary-school education, the way facts and history are presented greatly influences the interpretation of contemporary thought, opinion and socialization. One argument for censoring the type of information disseminated is based on the inappropriate quality of such material for the young. The use of the "inappropriate" distinction is in itself controversial, as it can lead to a slippery slope enforcing wider and more politically-motivated censorship. Some artists such as Frank Zappa helped in the protest against censorship. Although they usually failed, they did put up an argument against the censorship of other material.
An example of such censorship is, ironically, Fahrenheit 451. The book was themed against censorship, but changed heavily. The version that appeared in school English textbooks

对教育资源的检查制度
For more information, see the article on scientific misconduct.
Scientific studies may be suppressed or falsified because they undermine sponsors' commercial, political or other interests or because they fail to support researchers' ideological goals. Examples include, failing to publish a study that show a new drug is harmful, or truthfully publishing the benefits of a treatment while failing to describe harmful side-effects.

压制/捏造科学研究
American musicians such as Frank Zappa have repeatedly protested against censorship in music and pushed for more freedom of expression. In 1986, Zappa appeared on CNN Crossfire to protest censorship of lyrics in rock music, saying that harm will be done or unrest caused if controversial information, lyrics, or other messages are promulgated.
In countries like Sudan, Afghanistan and China, violations of musician’s rights to freedom of expression are commonplace. In the USA and Algeria, lobbying groups have succeeded in keeping popular music off the concert stage, and out of the media and retail. In ex-Yugoslavia musicians are often pawns in political dramas, and the possibility of free expression has been adversely affected.
Music censorship has been implemented by states, religions, educational systems, families, retailers and lobbying groups – and in most cases they violate international conventions of human rights.

对音乐与流行文化的检查制度
Copy approval is the right to read and amend an article, usually an interview, before publication. Many publications refuse to give copy approval but it is increasingly becoming common practice when dealing with publicity anxious celebrities.

拷贝, 图片, 以及作者授权
Censorship is regarded among a majority of academics in the Western world as a typical feature of dictatorships and other authoritarian political systems. Democratic nations are represented, especially among Western government, academic and media commentators, as having somewhat less institutionalized censorship, and as instead promoting the importance of freedom of speech. The former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics maintained a particularly extensive program of state-imposed censorship. The main organ for official censorship in the Soviet Union was the Chief Agency for Protection of Military and State Secrets generally known as the Glavlit, its Russian acronym. The Glavlit handled censorship matters arising from domestic writings of just about any kind — even beer and vodka labels. Glavlit censorship personnel were present in every large Soviet publishing house or newspaper; the agency employed some 70,000 censors to review information before it was disseminated by publishing houses, editorial offices, and broadcasting studios. No mass medium escaped Glavlit's control. All press agencies and radio and television stations had Glavlit representatives on their editorial staffs.
Some thinkers understand censorship to include other attempts to suppress points of view or the exploitation of negative propaganda, media manipulation, spin, disinformation or "free speech zones." These methods tend to work by disseminating preferred information, by relegating open discourse to marginal forums, and by preventing other ideas from obtaining a receptive audience.
Sometimes, a specific and unique information whose very existence is barely known to the public, is kept in a subtle, near-censorship situation, being regarded as “subversive” or “inconvenient”. Michel Foucault’s 1978 text Sexual Morality and the Law, for instance - originally published as La loi de la pudeur [literally, ‘the law of decency’], defends the decriminalization of statutory rape and the abolition of age of consent laws, and as of July 2006, is almost totally invisible throughout the Internet, both in English and French, and does not appear even on Foucault-specialized websites.
Suppression of access to the means of dissemination of ideas can function as a form of censorship. Such suppression has been alleged to arise from the policies of governmental bodies, such as the FCC in the United States of America, the CRTC in Canada, newspapers that refuse to run commentary the publisher disagrees with, lecture halls that refuse to rent themselves out to a particular speaker, and individuals who refuse to finance such a lecture. The omission of selected voices in the content of stories also serves to limit the spread of ideas, and is often called censorship. Such omission can result, for example, from persistent failure or refusal by media organizations to contact criminal defendants (relying solely on official sources for explanations of crime). Censorship has been alleged to occur in such media policies as blurring the boundaries between hard news and news commentary, and in the appointment of allegedly biased commentators, such as a former government attorney, to serve as anchors of programs labeled as hard news but comprising primarily anti-criminal commentary.
The focusing of news stories to exclude questions that might be of interest to some audience segments, such as the avoidance of reporting cumulative casualty rates among citizens of a nation that is the target or site of a foreign war, is often described as a form of censorship. Favorable representation in news or information services of preferred products or services, such as reporting on leisure travel and comparative values of various machines instead of on leisure activities such as arts, crafts or gardening has been described by some as a means of censoring ideas about the latter in favor of the former.
Self-censorship: Imposed on the media in a free market by market/cultural forces rather than a censoring authority. This occurs when it is more profitable for the media to give a biased view. Examples would include near hysterical and scientifically untenable stances against nuclear power, genetic engineering and recreational drugs distributed because scare stories sell. It also occurs when politicians/culture expect the media to give moral guidance - i.e., not publishing the cartoon depictions of Muhammed.
Informations about censorship: In many communist countries any information about existence of censorship and the legal basis of the censorship was censored. Rules of censoring were classified. Removed texts or phrases weren't marked.
Creative censorship: In many communist countries censors not only removed texts but sometimes rewrote them, so some texts had secret co-authors.

各国检查制度



Under US law, the First Amendment protects free speech and freedom of the press to some degree. This amendment does not mention many things, one being obscenity (a term usually applied to sexual material), but the common interpretation ignores this aspect using the argument that there is no social value deemed applicable to it. This applies only to the government and government entities; private corporations are under no such restriction.

美国
Google Earth censors places which may be of special security concern. The following is a selection of such concerns:

The Indian president APJ Abdul Kalam has expressed concern over the availability of high-resolution pictures of sensitive locations in India.
Indian Space Research Organization says, Google Earth poses security threat to India and seeks dialogue with Google officials.
The South Korean government has expressed concern that the software offers images of the presidential palace and various military installations that could possibly be used by their hostile neighbor North Korea.
In 2006, one user spotted a large topographical replica in a remote region of China. The model is purportedly a small-scale (1/500) version of the Karakoram Mountain Range, currently under the control of India. When later confirmed as a replica of this region, spectators began entertaining sinister military implications.
Operators of the Lucas Heights nuclear reactor in Sydney, Australia asked Google to censor high resolution pictures of the facility. However, they later withdrew the request.
The government of Israel also expressed concern over the availability of high-resolution pictures of sensitive locations in its territory, and applied pressure to have Israeli territory (and the Occupied Territories held by Israeli forces) appear in less clear detail.

Map Imagery
Companies responsible for the access to the Internet in Brazil, such as Brasil Telecom and Telefonica, initially accepted the judicial order readily, and hindered access to the site with the offending videos. Due to the great displeasure regarding the decision in the community, authorities rescinded their order the following day, and Youtube.com was once again widely available to computer users in Brazil.

Censorship in the Internet - In 8 of January of 2007, Brazilian authorities tried to censor the site YouTube due to a video of scenes of sex between the model Daniela Cicarelli and her boyfriend Renato Malzoni, filmed by a paparazzo on a beach in Spain.

巴西
Censorship in Australia, Censorship in China, Internet censorship in the People's Republic of China, Censorship in India, Censorship in Japan, Censorship in Malaysia, Censorship in Singapore, Censorship in South Asia, Censorship in Taiwan, Censorship in Thailand, Censorship of radio and film (Thailand)
Censorship in Iran, Censorship in Iraq, Censorship in Israel, Internet Censorship in Pakistan, Censorship in Saudi Arabia
Censorship in Canada, Censorship in Cuba
Censorship in Belarus, Censorship in East Germany (former DDR), Censorship in France, Censorship in the Republic of Ireland, Censorship in Poland, Censorship in Portugal, Censorship in the Russian Empire, Censorship in the Soviet Union, Censorship in Sweden, Censorship in Turkey, Censorship in the United Kingdom

世界各地的检查制度
Banned books, Banned films, Censorship of music
Corporate media, Re-edited film
Criticism of Wikipedia (Censorship section), Video game controversy

对媒体的检查
Advertising regulation, Corporate censorship
Censorship by organized religion, Postal censorship, Censorship under fascist regimes, Internet censorship

其他类型的检查制度
Anthony Comstock (Comstock Law), Areopagitica: A speech of Mr John Milton for the liberty of unlicensed printing to the Parliament of England, Autocensorship, Bleep censor, Book burning, Book banning, the Censored Eleven (banned Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies cartoons), Censorware, Chilling effect, Cindy's Torment, Comics Code Authority, Content-control software, Death Whoop, Edited movie, Elsebeth Baumgartner, Entertainment Software Rating Board, Fahrenheit 451, Freemuse - Freedom of Musical Expression, Freedom of speech
Gatekeeper (politics), Graffiti Blasters, Index Librorum Prohibitorum of The Roman Catholic Church, International Freedom of Expression eXchange, Jack Thompson, John Stuart Mill, Lady Chatterley's Lover, Leland Yee, Media controversy, Media transparency, MPAA rating system, NEA Four, Network neutrality, Nineteen Eighty-Four, Police state, Prior restraint, Production Code, Project Censored
Scieno Sitter, SourceWatch, Standards & Practices, Parents Television Council, Super Bowl XXXVIII controversy, Thomas Bowdler, Tunisia Monitoring Group, TV Parental Guidelines, V-chip, Mary Whitehouse, Whitewashing, Obscurantism

Citations and notes
(Arguing that an English teacher should get advice from school librarians in preparing to encounter three levels of censorship:

Abbott, Randy. "A Critical Analysis of the Library-Related Literature Concerning Censorship in Public Libraries and Public School Libraries in the United States During the 1980s." Project for degree of Education Specialist, University of South Florida, December 1987. [ED 308 864]
Burress, Lee. Battle of the Books. Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, 1989. [ED 308 508]
Butler, Judith, "Excitable Speech: A Politics of the Performative" (1997)
Foucault, Michel, edited by Lawrence D. Kritzman. Philosophy, Culture: interviews and other writings 1977-1984 (New York/London: 1988, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-90082-4) [The text Sexual Morality and the Law is Chapter 16 of the book]
O'Reilly, Robert C. and Larry Parker. "Censorship or Curriculum Modification?" Paper presented at a School Boards Association, 1982, 14 p. [ED 226 432]
Hansen, Terry. The Missing Times: News media complicity in the UFO cover-up, 2000. ISBN 0-7388-3612-5
Hendrikson, Leslie. "Library Censorship: ERIC Digest No. 23." ERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social Science Education, Boulder, Colorado, November 1985. [ED 264 165]
Hoffman, Frank. "Intellectual Freedom and Censorship." Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, 1989. [ED 307 652]
Marek, Kate. "Schoolbook Censorship USA." June 1987. [ED 300 018]
National Coalition against Censorship (NCAC). "Books on Trial: A Survey of Recent Cases." January 1985. [ED 258 597]
Small, Robert C., Jr. "Preparing the New English Teacher to Deal with Censorship, or Will I Have to Face it Alone?" Annual Meeting of the National Council of Teachers of English, 1987, 16 p.
Rejection of adolescent fiction and popular teen magazines as having low value,
Experienced colleagues discouraging "difficult" lesson plans,
Outside interest groups limiting students' exposure. [ED 289 172])
Terry, John David II. "Censorship: Post Pico." In "School Law Update, 1986," edited by Thomas N. Jones and Darel P. Semler. [ED 272 994]
[1] Supreme Court rejects advocates' plea to preserve useful formats
World Book Encyclopedia, volume 3 (C-Ch), pages 345, 346

General information
Template:External links

the National Coalition Against Censorship
Banned Magazine the Online Journal of Censorship and Secrecy
Olympic Watch (Committee for the 2008 Olympic Games in a Free and Democratic Country) on censorship in China
"Berlin will keine 'Judensau'" by Khue Pham and Anna Reimann, Der Spiegel, January 30 2007 (in German).
irrepressible.info - Amnesty International's campaign against internet repression
The 15 enemies of the Internet and other countries to watch
www.beepworld.de/members/press-freedom Press Freedom International
1990 audio interview of William Noble, author of Book Banning. Interview by Don Swaim of CBS Radio. RealAudio
Sexual Morality and the Law. The only online transcription of Foucault's text as of July 2006.
Specific Sites Excluded from Google.fr and or Google.de.
Numerous pictures of Iranian censorship in the western magazines The Economist, Wallpaper and National Geographic Magazine
Castro and the ACLU v Miami's Book 'Ban', by Humberto Fontova, author of "Fidel: Hollywood’s Favorite Tyrant," 8 August 2006
Zurich Film Censor bans Pasolini film, February 2007
The Cleanex Experiment Program introducing censorship on Freenet.

Websites

中国网络审查
中国电视审查