"總司令"的搜尋報告

「總司令」是指一個國家軍隊的最高司令官。
A commander-in-chief is the commander of a nation's military forces or significant element of those forces. In the latter case, the force element may be defined as those forces within a particular region or those forces which are associated by function. As a practical term it refers to the military competencies which reside in a nation-state's executive, head of state or government. Often, a given country's commander-in-chief need not be or have been a commissioned officer or even a veteran, and it is by this legal statute that civilian control of the military is realized in states where it is constitutionally required.
The term "commander-in-chief" was first used by King Charles I of England in 1639. A nation's head of state usually holds the position of national commander-in-chief, even if effective executive power is held by a separate head of government. Colonial governors are also often appointed commander-in-chief of the military forces in their colonies. In NATO terminology commander-in chief is often abbreviated to C-in-C or CINC (pronounced "sink").
Below the national commander-in-chief are often appointed various regional commanders-in-chief. For example, at the start of the Second World War the Royal Navy had no fewer than nine commanders-in-chief, from Commander-in-Chief Portsmouth to Commander-in-Chief China Station. Such local commanders-in-chief usually have full decision-making authority.
NATO has also established various commands-in-chief, e.g. Commander-in-Chief Allied Forces North, Commander-in-Chief East Atlantic, etc.

英聯邦地區
The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia provides that: "The command in chief of the naval and military forces of the Commonwealth is vested in the Governor-General as the Queen's representative", and the original letters patent constituting the office of Governor-General refer to him as "Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief in and over Our Commonwealth of Australia". In practice, de facto control of the military is exercised by the Cabinet, as in other Commonwealth Realms.
Until the early 20th century, the Royal Navy naval commander-in-chief commanding the Australia Station of the British Eastern Fleet was known as "Commander-in-Chief, Australia".

澳洲
The situation in Canada as to the identity of the national Commander-in-Chief is slightly complex. The British North America Act of 1867 (now renamed the Constitution Act 1867) provides that: "The Command-in-Chief of the Land and Naval Militia, and of all Naval and Military Forces, of and in Canada, is hereby declared to continue to be vested in the Queen." This provision is still in effect.
The Militia Act of 1904 provided that: "The Command-in-Chief of the Militia is declared to continue and be vested in the King, and shall be administered by His Majesty or by the Governor General as his representative." Since that time Governors General have been allowed by the Canadian Sovereign to carry the title of "Governor General and Commander-in-Chief in and over Canada." With the creation of the Royal Canadian Navy and Royal Canadian Air Force in 1910 and 1919 respectively, the Monarch, and by extension the Governor General, gained command-in-chief over those forces as well. The 1947 Letters Patent of King George VI permitted the Governor General to exercise most of the duties of the Sovereign in Canada, and the new Commission of Appointment referred to the Office of Governor General and Commander-in-Chief in and over Canada. By constitutional convention, the Cabinet has de facto command and control powers over the Canadian Armed Forces; however all declarations of war must be signed by the Governor General or Canadian Monarch.

加拿大
當香港在英國的殖民統治時，香港總督是駐港三軍總司令，儘管在駐港英軍部隊內另有一名駐港英軍總司令。於香港回歸中國後，中華人民共和國解放軍駐港部隊的總司令稱呼為司令員，而且是從國內派來香港管理駐港部隊。

香港
The Governor-General is designated in letters patent issued in 1983 and the Defence Act 1990 as "Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief". Although the Defence Act refers to the powers of the office none are described and this is left to common law, royal prerogative and administrational and operational practice.

New Zealand
The title Commander-in-Chief is rarely used by the Sovereign, but usually refers to local or service commanders-in-chief. However, it would not be incorrect to describe the Sovereign as being the Commander-in-Chief. By constitutional convention, the Cabinet has de facto command over the British Armed Forces.

英國
In the Royal Navy, the overall head of the Navy is known as the Lord High Admiral, and the title has been variously held by the monarch or an individual admiral, or put into commission and exercised by a board of commissioners. Since 1964, the title has been held by the Queen. There have in addition long been many commanders-in-chief in charge of Royal Navy ships at home as well as foreign stations. During the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, the term was extended to cover the senior Admiral in a theatre of the war, such as the Mediterranean or North Sea.
In the 1930s the Royal Navy had no fewer than nine commanders-in-chief; today there are two - the Commander-in-Chief Fleet and the Commander-in-Chief Naval Home Command. See List of fleets and major commands of the Royal Navy.

皇家海軍
In the British Army, the office of General in Chief Command, later renamed Commander-in-Chief of the Forces, was instituted after the Restoration in 1660. Between 1672 and 1904, the title Commander-in-Chief was officially used for the general in charge of the Army, after which the title Chief of the General Staff was adopted. There existed also in times of war, and in places such as India, regional commanders-in-chief. In addition, colonial governors are and were usually appointed Commander-in-Chief in and over their colonies.

英國陸軍
The Royal Air Force uses the term "Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief" (sometimes shortened to Commander-in-Chief) to describe those officers in charge of a command. An early example of air force usage occurred on 1 January 1925 when Air Vice-Marshal Sir John Salmond was appointed Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief of the Air Defence of Great Britain. Currently there are two air officers commanding-in-chief, Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief Strike Command and Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief Personnel and Training Command. On 01 April 2007, these were replaced by a single Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief Air Command.

皇家空軍
The Egyptian system appears to be an exception to the prevailing systems. The President of the Republic holds the ceremonial title of Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces while a member of the Government holds the position Commander-in-Chief. This person tends to be the Minister for Defence. The President still remains the only individual capable of declaring war. So far all Egyptian presidents have been former military officers, and during the Yom Kippur War the President played a major role at all levels of the planning of the war, and was in a literal sense Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces giving direct orders to the commanders from the headquarters during the war as field marshal of the army, colonel general of the airforce and air defence forces and admiral of the navy. Anwar el-Sadat often wore his military uniform, while Hosni Mubarak has abandoned this tradition. However Hosni Mubarak holds the same ranks during war time.

埃及
According to the Finnish constitution, the President of Finland is the Commander-in-Chief of all Finnish military forces. In practice, the everyday command and control is in the hands of Commander-in-Chief of the Finnish Defence Forces and the Commander of the Finnish Border Guard. The economic administration of the Defence Force is the responsibility of Ministry of Defence. Since the constitutional reform of 2000, the minister of defence has the right to be present while the president uses her command powers, unless the matter is of immediate concern. In questions of strategic importance, the prime minister has the same right.
The President commissions officers and decides on the mobilisation of the Defence Forces. If Parliament is not in session when a decision to mobilise is taken, it must be immediately convened. The declaration of state of war is made by a presidential decree, which must be afterwards accepted by the parliament.

芬蘭
In France, the President of the Republic holds the title of "Chef des Armées" ("Chief of the Armies"). He is the supreme authority for military affairs, and is the only competent authority for the use of nuclear weapons.
Since the reign of Louis XIV France has been strongly centralized. After crushing local nobles engaged in warlordism, the Kings of France retained all authority with the help of able yet discreet Prime ministers (Mazarin, Richelieu).
The 1789 Revolution transferred the supreme authority to the King (in the context of the short-lived constitutional Monarchy), then to the multi-member Comité de Salut Public during the Convention, and later to the Directoire, before being regained in the hands of Consul Napoléon Bonaparte, later Emperor Napoléon I, alone.
The Restauration restored authority of the King, in an absolute, then constitutional way before being overthrown by the Second Empire. The following Third Republic was a parliamentary system, where the military authority was held by the President of the Council (Prime Minister).
During World War II, Maréchal Philippe Pétain assumed power and held the supreme authority in Vichy France, while Général Charles De Gaulle, acting on behalf of the previous regime, founded the Free French Forces, upon which he held supreme authority all through the war.
The following and short-lived Fourth Republic was a parliamentary system, which was replaced by the present Fifth Republic, a semi-presidential system.

法國
Since the 1955 remilitarization of Western Germany, according to the Grundgesetz, in times of peace the Federal Minister of Defence is the Commander-in-Chief of the Bundeswehr. If the "state of defense" (Verteidigungsfall) is established by parliament, the Chancellor of Germany becomes the commander of the German armed forces.

德國
The Supreme Command of the Armed Forces vests in the President. Though effective executive power and responsibility for national defence resides with the Cabinet headed by the Prime Minister. This is discharged through the Ministry of Defence headed by Defence Minister, which provides the policy framework and wherewithal to the Armed Forces to discharge their responsibilities in the context of the defence of the country.
On August 15, 1947, each Service was placed under its own Commander-in-Chief. In 1955, the three Service Chiefs were redesignated as the Chief of the Army Staff, the Chief of the Naval Staff and the Chief of the Air Staff with President of India as supreme commander.

印度
Before 1979, the Shah was the commander-in-chief in Iran. After the inception of the Islamic Republic, the Supreme Leader of Iran has taken on the role.

伊朗
In Ireland, the commander-in-chief of the army is the president.

愛爾蘭
The Constitution of Italy, article 87, states that the President of the Republic is the commander of the armed forces and chairman of the supreme defense council constituted by law; he declares war according to the decision of the parliament; however, since the president has no direct executive power, the Prime Minister and the Minister of Defence have the actual control of the armed forces, while the president retains a supervision role.

意大利
Article 93 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China places the authority to direct the armed forces of the PRC in the Central Military Commission. However, Article 80 gives the President of the People's Republic of China the power to proclaim martial law, proclaim a state of war, and issue mobilization orders. Since the mid-1990's, it has been standard practice to have the President, the CMC Chairman, and the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China be the same person although the differences in the start of terms means that there is some overlap between an occupant and his predecessor.

中華人民共和國
根據俄羅斯的憲法，俄羅斯總統是俄羅斯軍隊的最高司令。他有權批准軍事政策以及委任國防部長及參謀長。

俄羅斯
In Sweden the Monarch was the Supreme Commander of all Swedish Armed Forces up and till the new constitution of 1975. After the new constitution came into effect, the office of Supreme Commander (Överbefälhavare, ÖB) reports directly to the Minister of Defence and the Cabinet.
However, in order to uphold tradition, the King of Sweden, Carl XVI Gustaf, is still a full four star general/admiral of all branches of the Swedish Armed Forces. This rank he shares only with the ÖB, who in turn is a full four star general/admiral of only one branch of the Swedish Armed Forces.

Sweden
In peacetime, the Armed Forces are led by the Chief of the Armed Forces who has the rank of "Corps commander" (Korpskommandant or Commandant de corps, ranking OF-8 in NATO equivalence). In a time of declared war or national emergency however, the Federal Assembly appoints a General (OF-9 by NATO) as Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. The General acts as the highest military authority, but is subordinate to the Federal Council, which holds the supreme authority.
Four generals were appointed in Swiss history, General Henri Dufour during the Swiss Civil War, General Hans Herzog during the Franco-Prussian War, General Ulrich Wille during the First World War, and General Henri Guisan during the Second World War ("la Mob", "the Mobilisation"). Although Switzerland remained neutral during the latter three conflicts, the threat of having its territory used as a battlefield by the much bigger war parties of Germany and France required mobilization of the army.

Switzerland
美國國會給予美國總統的職銜，理應是美軍陸軍暨海軍總司令，和各州國民警衛軍總司令 who "shall be Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States" (See the 1941 Declarations of War[1] against Japan and Germany for how this call is made). The title commander-in-chief has been used from time to time to refer to powerful regional U.S. military leaders (such as CENTCOM), but the United States abolished all local commands-in-chief in 2002.
美國各州州長亦為其所管轄州份之總司令的代表The governors of the several states are also commanders-in-chief of their states' respective National Guard and other military forces, except when those forces are called into active federal service. In 1947, the National Security Act made the President, as a consequence of the creation of the United States Air Force, also the Commander-in-Chief of the Air Force of the United States, by extension.
Although the United States presidency was modeled upon the kingship of Great Britain, and the title of Commander-in-Chief was unlikely to have been understood to confer upon the President any powers additional to those inherently held by a Sovereign, the title has increasingly come to be perceived as being a peculiarly military position. This has led to a blurring of the distinction between the President's civil and military responsibilities. It was, for instance, the basis for the trial by military commission of Dr. Samuel Mudd. The American presidency thus departs from the civilian basis of virtually all other republics. In 1867 Congress attempted to limit the President's powers as Commander in Chief by passing the Army Appropriations Act. The Act included the “command of the army” provisions, which required that the president issue all commands to the army through the General of the Army. This act was condemned by President Andrew Johnson, but he nevertheless signed it into law.
In the United States, the Goldwater-Nichols Defense Reorganization Act of 1986 added a new level of commanders-in-chief (CINCs). Under Goldwater-Nichols, regional CINCs were created to bring a local supreme commander to a conflict, the most well-known of which was CINC CENTCOM, who was Norman Schwarzkopf during Operation Desert Storm.
On October 24, 2002, Secretary of Defense Donald H. Rumsfeld announced that the title of "Commander-in-Chief" would thereafter be reserved for the President, consistent with the terms of Article II of the United States Constitution. Armed forces CINCs in specified regions would thereafter be known as "combatant commanders," heading the Unified Combatant Commands.
As of May 2006, there are nine Unified Combatant Commands. Five have regional responsibilities, and four have functional responsibilities. The chain of command runs from the President to the Secretary of Defense to the combatant commanders of the Unified Combatant Commands. The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff may transmit communications to the Commanders of the Unified Combatant Commands from the President and Secretary of Defense, but does not exercise military command over any combatant forces.

美國
作為總司令, 美國總統的地位高於任何軍官及擁有固有的權力去向戰場上的軍官下達命令。但因為總統並非身在戰區，而且通常比起軍事指揮官缺少軍事經驗， 至今只有兩名總統, George Washington 和 James Madison, 曾於戰場上下令。 Washington personally led a federalised militia force of approximately 70,000 troops to quell the Whiskey Rebellion during his second term, although he was not present during any of the skirmishing in the relatively bloodless conflict.
During the War of 1812, President Madison was under enemy fire on August 24, 1814, when American forces were routed by British troops in Bladensburg, Maryland. Madison, incensed by the American commanding general's incompetence, was on the scene and personally assumed command of the only remaining American force, a naval battery commanded by Commodore Joshua Barney. He did so to stall the British invasion of the American capital, but his efforts were unsuccessful, and the British burned Washington over the next two days.
在南北戰爭期間, 林肯總統 considered personally assuming battlefield command of the Union Army, and studied military texts when he became frustrated by the incompetence and lethargy of his generals. He actually came under enemy fire in 1864 during the Confederate attack on Fort Stevens in the District of Columbia, but did not exercise battlefield authority as commander-in-chief at any time.

在戰場上總司令的權力



In the War on Terrorism President George W. Bush has used these war powers to justify several controversial acts, such as the NSA electronic surveillance program and enhanced interrogation. The administration, on several occasions, has used a legal theory known as the unitary executive theory, to explain that in his duty as Commander-in-Chief the President, with his inherent powers, cannot be bound by any law or Congress. Advocates of this theory opine that since the primary task of the President, during a time of war, is protecting US citizens, and anything hindering him in that capacity can be considered unconstitutional.

反恐戰爭

Command responsibility
International law
Jus ad bellum
Jus in bello
軍事法